by
The
map
above
shows
the
political
situation
in
Europe
after
the
Congress
of
Vienna
in
June
1815
following
Napoleon’s
Final
defeat
in
the
100
days.
Here
are
some
of
the
changes
that
occurred
to
pre-revolutionary
Europe:
The
Congress
of
Vienna
The
Congress
of
Vienna
(September
1814
–
June
1815)
was
a
diplomatic
conference
held
after
the
Napoleonic
Wars
to
reorganize
Europe’s
political
map
and
establish
a
stable
balance
of
power.
Its
primary
purpose
was
to
create
a
long-term
peace
plan
for
Europe
by
settling
issues
arising
from
the
French
Revolutionary
and
Napoleonic
Wars.
The
great
powers
sought
to
restore
pre-revolutionary
regimes
(the
principle
of
legitimacy)
and
to
prevent
any
one
nation
(like
France)
from
dominating
Europe
again.
This
led
to
the
restoration
of
many
monarchies
and
the
redrawing
of
borders
to
ensure
no
single
power
could
easily
upset
the
European
order.
In
effect,
the
Congress
ushered
in
an
era
of
conservative
reaction
against
the
liberal
and
nationalist
forces
unleashed
by
the
French
Revolution,
aiming
for
stability
over
revolution.
Key
participants:
The
Congress
was
dominated
by
the
major
victorious
powers:
Austria,
Britain,
Russia,
Prussia,
and
a
re-integrated
France.
-
Austrian
Chancellor
Klemens
von
Metternich
hosted
and
chaired
the
talks,
pushing
a
conservative
vision
for
Europe. -
Britain’s
foreign
minister
Viscount
Castlereagh
(later
replaced
by
the
Duke
of
Wellington)
represented
British
interests,
focusing
on
balance
of
power
and
containing
France. -
Tsar
Alexander
I
personally
led
the
Russian
delegation,
seeking
to
expand
Russian
influence
(especially
in
Poland)
while
promoting
a
lasting
peace
under
Christian
monarchies. -
King
Frederick
William
III
of
Prussia
sent
Chancellor
Karl
von
Hardenberg
(and
diplomat
Wilhelm
von
Humboldt),
with
Prussia
aiming
to
gain
territory
in
northern
Germany
(like
Saxony
and
the
Rhineland). -
Although
France
had
been
defeated,
the
wily
diplomat
Charles-Maurice
de
Talleyrand
secured
France
a
place
at
the
negotiating
table
and
played
the
powers
against
each
other
to
prevent
France’s
dismemberment.
In
addition
to
these
“Big
Five,”
representatives
of
smaller
states
–
such
as
Spain,
Portugal,
Sweden,
Denmark,
the
Netherlands,
and
various
German
and
Italian
states
–
were
present,
though
they
had
less
influence
on
the
final
decisions.
Major
territorial
changes:
The
Congress
of
Vienna
produced
the
most
comprehensive
reshaping
of
the
European
map
Europe
had
ever
seen
up
to
that
time.
Some
key
outcomes
included:
-
France:
Lost
all
territories
conquered
under
Napoleon,
retreating
to
essentially
its
1790
borders.
The
Bourbon
monarchy
was
restored
under
Louis
XVIII,
and
France
was
surrounded
by
stronger
states
to
contain
it
(e.g.
a
robust
Kingdom
of
the
Netherlands
in
the
north
and
an
enlarged
Piedmont-Sardinia
in
the
south). -
Prussia:
Gained
significant
new
territories
in
both
the
west
and
east.
Prussia
annexed
the
northern
Rhineland
and
Westphalia
in
western
Germany,
as
well
as
parts
of
Saxony
(about
40%
of
the
Kingdom
of
Saxony)
and
the
whole
of
Swedish
Pomerania,
greatly
expanding
its
size
and
positioning
it
as
a
guardian
on
France’s
eastern
frontier.
In
the
east,
Prussia
re-gained
the
Poznań
(Posen)
region
of
Poland
and
other
Polish
territories,
becoming
one
of
the
partitioning
powers
of
the
former
Duchy
of
Warsaw. -
Russia:
Emerged
territorially
larger,
cementing
its
role
as
a
dominant
land
power.
Tsar
Alexander’s
Russia
acquired
most
of
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw,
i.e.
central
Poland,
which
was
reconstituted
as
the
nominal
“Congress
Kingdom
of
Poland”
under
Russian
administration.
Russia
already
held
Finland
(taken
from
Sweden
in
1809)
and
Bessarabia
(taken
from
the
Ottomans
in
1812),
so
by
1815
its
western
border
had
moved
further
into
Europe. -
Habsburg
Austria:
Although
Austria
had
to
relinquish
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium)
and
their
claims
in
southwest
Germany,
it
was
compensated
with
territory
in
Italy
and
Central
Europe.
Austria
gained
control
of
Lombardy
and
Venetia
in
northern
Italy,
extending
Habsburg
influence
deep
into
the
Italian
Peninsula.
It
also
regained
Tyrol
and
Salzburg
and
took
a
leading
role
in
the
newly
formed
German
Confederation.
The
Austrian
Empire
(under
Emperor
Francis
I/II)
presided
over
this
German
Confederation,
affirming
Austria’s
leadership
in
Central
Europe
despite
the
end
of
the
Holy
Roman
Empire. -
German
States:
The
nearly
300
states
of
the
defunct
Holy
Roman
Empire
(dissolved
by
Napoleon
in
1806)
were
consolidated
into
a
much
simpler
configuration
of
39
states.
These
formed
the
German
Confederation
(Deutscher
Bund),
a
loose
association
under
Austrian
presidency.
Kingdoms
like
Bavaria,
Württemberg,
and
Hanover
were
enlarged
with
additional
territories,
while
smaller
entities
were
mediatized
or
absorbed.
This
reorganization
aimed
to
provide
stability
in
Central
Europe
and
prevent
the
resurgence
of
French
influence
among
fragmented
German
mini-states. -
United
Kingdom
of
the
Netherlands:
A
new
Kingdom
of
the
Netherlands
was
created
in
the
northwest,
uniting
the
former
Dutch
Republic
with
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium)
under
the
Dutch
House
of
Orange.
This
enlarged
kingdom
served
as
a
strong
buffer
state
on
France’s
northern
border.
(In
practice,
the
union
was
tenuous
–
Belgium
would
revolt
and
secede
in
1830
–
but
in
1815
it
was
intended
to
be
a
single
kingdom.) -
Italy:
The
Italian
Peninsula
was
re-divided
among
old
dynasties
and
Austrian
influence,
essentially
undoing
Napoleon’s
reorganizations.
Austria
directly
controlled
Lombardy-Venetia.
The
Bourbon
Kingdom
of
Naples
(Two
Sicilies)
was
restored
under
King
Ferdinand
after
Napoleon’s
brother-in-law,
Murat,
was
ousted.
The
Papal
States
under
the
Pope
were
reinstated
in
central
Italy.
The
Kingdom
of
Piedmont-Sardinia
(Savoy)
was
re-established
and
even
gained
the
Republic
of
Genoa
to
strengthen
it
as
a
buffer
against
France.
Smaller
duchies
(Tuscany,
Modena,
Parma)
were
returned
to
their
Habsburg
or
Bourbon
rulers.
Italy
became,
as
Metternich
quipped,
a
“geographical
expression”
–
a
patchwork
of
seven
major
states
under
great-power
oversight. -
Scandinavia:
The
balance
shifted
in
the
north.
As
decided
by
the
Treaty
of
Kiel
(1814)
during
the
war,
Norway
was
transferred
from
Denmark
to
the
rule
of
the
King
of
Sweden,
creating
a
dual
Kingdom
of
Sweden-Norway
(a
personal
union).
This
was
a
reward
to
Sweden
(which,
under
Crown
Prince
Bernadotte,
had
joined
the
fight
against
Napoleon)
and
punishment
for
Denmark’s
alliance
with
Napoleon.
Denmark
retained
control
of
Schleswig-Holstein
in
northern
Germany
but
was
significantly
weakened.
Sweden,
having
lost
Finland
to
Russia
in
1809,
gained
Norway
as
compensation
and
emerged
from
the
Napoleonic
era
in
union
with
its
new
territory. -
Great
Britain:
Britain
had
no
territorial
gains
on
the
continent
proper,
but
it
emerged
as
the
leading
colonial
and
naval
power.
At
Vienna,
Britain’s
interests
were
to
ensure
a
stable
continent
and
favorable
maritime
conditions.
The
UK
did
gain
some
strategic
territories
overseas
or
on
Europe’s
fringes
during
the
peace
settlements
(for
instance,
confirmed
possession
of
Malta
and
Heligoland,
and
control
over
former
French
and
Dutch
colonies
like
the
Cape
Colony
and
Ceylon)
–
but
in
European
map
terms
Britain’s
borders
(now
the
United
Kingdom
of
Great
Britain
and
Ireland
after
the
1801
union
with
Ireland)
remained
the
same.
Britain’s
role
was
chiefly
to
guarantee
the
new
European
balance
and
to
ward
off
any
single
power’s
domination. -
Switzerland:
The
Swiss
Confederation
was
restored
and
enlarged.
After
the
turmoil
of
the
Napoleonic
period
(when
Switzerland
had
been
a
French-influenced
Helvetic
Republic),
the
Congress
re-established
Switzerland
as
a
confederation
of
22
cantons
with
a
policy
of
perpetual
neutrality
guaranteed
by
the
great
powers.
Several
new
cantons
(e.g.
Geneva,
Neuchâtel,
Valais)
were
added,
and
Swiss
independence
from
French
influence
was
affirmed. -
Spain
and
Portugal:
The
Bourbon
dynasty
was
restored
in
Spain
(King
Ferdinand
VII
returned
after
Napoleon’s
brother
Joseph
was
deposed),
and
Spain’s
1789
borders
were
essentially
restored
(France
gave
up
its
brief
annexations
in
Catalonia,
etc.).
Portugal,
Britain’s
long-time
ally,
had
been
invaded
by
Napoleon
but
by
1815
its
independence
was
secure
under
the
House
of
Braganza
(which
had
temporarily
moved
the
court
to
Brazil
during
the
war).
A
minor
territorial
dispute
lingered:
Portugal
pressed
to
recover
Olivenza,
a
town
seized
by
Spain
in
1801,
and
the
Congress’s
Final
Act
acknowledged
the
justice
of
Portugal’s
claim–
though
in
practice
Spain
retained
Olivenza.
Overall,
however,
the
Iberian
borders
of
1815
looked
much
like
those
of
1789,
with
the
revolutionary
interlude
reversed.
These
adjustments,
enshrined
in
the
Final
Act
of
the
Congress
(June
9,
1815),
created
a
balance
of
power
that
the
statesmen
hoped
would
preserve
peace.
Indeed,
the
Vienna
settlement
prevented
a
general
European
war
for
nearly
40
years.
The
Congress
system
(or
“Concert
of
Europe”)
was
established
to
resolve
future
disputes
diplomatically
and
maintain
the
status
quo.
Despite
later
criticism
that
Vienna
suppressed
liberal
aspirations,
it
undeniably
reshaped
Europe
and
set
the
stage
for
the
19th-century
order
European
Borders:
1789
vs.
1815
In
1789,
Europe’s
political
map
was
still
largely
defined
by
the
old
dynastic
kingdoms
and
empires.
France
was
a
unified
kingdom
under
the
Bourbon
monarchy
(its
territory
extended
to
the
Rhine
in
the
east
and
the
Pyrenees
in
the
south,
but
it
did
not
yet
include
regions
like
Belgium
or
the
left
bank
of
the
Rhine
that
it
would
annex
during
the
revolution).
Central
Europe
was
dominated
by
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
(outlined
in
red
on
the
map),
a
complex
patchwork
of
hundreds
of
semi-sovereign
duchies,
bishoprics,
free
cities,
and
kingdoms
loosely
united
under
the
Austrian
Habsburg
Emperor.
The
Habsburg
Monarchy
(Austria
proper)
itself
was
a
major
power,
ruling
not
only
over
Austrian
and
Bohemian
lands
but
also
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium)
and
territories
in
northern
Italy,
as
well
as
the
Hungarian
kingdom
(indicated
as
“Hungary”
on
the
map,
though
under
Habsburg
rule).
To
the
east,
the
vast
Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth
still
existed
in
1789,
though
much
weakened
and
territorially
smaller
after
a
first
partition
(1772)
by
Russia,
Prussia,
and
Austria.
Great
Britain
(which
in
1789
comprised
England,
Scotland,
and
Ireland
in
personal
union)
had
no
continental
possessions
apart
from
Gibraltar,
focusing
instead
on
its
overseas
empire.
In
Southern
Europe,
the
Spanish
and
Portuguese
empires
remained
intact
within
Iberia,
and
the
Ottoman
Empire
still
controlled
the
Balkans
and
parts
of
the
Black
Sea
coast
(the
Crimean
Khanate
had
just
been
annexed
by
Russia
in
1783).
In
summary,
1789
Europe
was
the
world
of
the
Ancien
Régime,
with
old
borders
and
rulers,
soon
to
be
upended
by
revolutionary
France.
By
1815,
after
twenty-five
years
of
revolution
and
war,
Europe’s
borders
had
been
dramatically
reshuffled.
The
Congress
of
Vienna
largely
restored
or
recreated
states
that
had
been
altered
or
destroyed
by
Napoleon,
but
Europe
in
1815
was
not
identical
to
1789
–
significant
changes
had
taken
place.
France
was
reduced
again
to
a
kingdom
under
Louis
XVIII,
roughly
within
its
pre-Revolution
frontiers.
However,
surrounding
France
were
newly
strengthened
states
(such
as
an
enlarged
Netherlands
and
Prussia)
to
prevent
French
aggression
Central
and
Eastern
Europe
saw
the
rise
of
new
powers
like
Prussia
and
Russia
at
the
expense
of
formerly
independent
kingdoms
like
Poland.
The
Holy
Roman
Empire
was
gone,
replaced
by
a
German
Confederation
of
fewer,
larger
states.
Many
smaller
states
were
mediatized
or
merged
into
bigger
units,
reflecting
Napoleon’s
consolidations
and
the
Congress’s
desire
for
a
stable
order.
Below
is
a
country-by-country
and
regional
breakdown
of
how
Europe’s
borders
changed
from
1789
(pre-French
Revolution)
to
1815
(post-Napoleonic
order):
France
In
1789,
France
was
a
major
European
kingdom
with
territories
roughly
bounded
by
the
Atlantic,
the
English
Channel,
the
Rhine
River
to
the
east,
and
the
Pyrenees
to
the
south.
It
did
not
control
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium)
or
the
west
bank
of
the
Rhine
–
those
were
annexed
during
the
revolutionary
wars
in
the
1790s.
By
1815,
France
had
been
forced
to
retrocede
all
territories
conquered
after
1789,
losing
Belgium,
Luxembourg,
the
Rhineland,
Savoy,
Nice,
and
other
annexations.
The
Congress
largely
restored
France
to
its
1792
borders
(very
close
to
1789,
with
only
minor
tweaks).
This
meant
France
in
1815
was
slightly
smaller
than
in
1789
only
in
that
it
did
not
retain
territories
like
Avignon
or
Savoy
that
it
had
annexed
during
the
Revolution
–
it
was
essentially
the
same
core
France,
but
encircled
by
stronger
neighbors
to
keep
it
in
check.
Politically,
the
difference
was
stark:
1789
France
was
an
absolute
monarchy
about
to
face
revolution;
1815
France
was
a
constitutional
monarchy
under
the
restored
Bourbons,
after
the
rise
and
fall
of
Napoleon’s
empire.
In
terms
of
influence,
France
in
1815
had
lost
the
dominant
position
in
continental
affairs
that
revolutionary/Napoleonic
France
had
temporarily
gained;
it
was
now
cautiously
included
as
a
junior
partner
in
the
Concert
of
Europe
rather
than
the
continent’s
hegemon.
Great
Britain
Great
Britain
(plus
Ireland)
saw
relatively
little
change
in
its
European
borders
between
1789
and
1815.
In
1789,
Great
Britain
was
an
island
kingdom
(the
Kingdom
of
Great
Britain,
and
a
separate
Kingdom
of
Ireland
under
the
same
crown),
holding
Gibraltar
as
a
fortress
in
the
south
of
Spain.
By
1815,
it
had
become
the
United
Kingdom
of
Great
Britain
and
Ireland
(after
the
1801
Act
of
Union),
but
territorially
it
remained
the
same
in
Europe
–
an
island
nation
off
the
northwest
coast.
The
key
differences
were
geopolitical:
Britain
had
spent
the
intervening
years
fighting
France
and
had
vastly
increased
its
overseas
empire
and
naval
supremacy.
It
gained
strategic
colonies
and
footholds
(for
example,
Malta
in
the
Mediterranean,
and
various
colonial
territories
from
defeated
powers),
but
on
the
European
map
Britain
did
not
acquire
new
land.
One
small
exception
often
noted
is
that
Britain
obtained
the
island
of
Heligoland
(from
Denmark)
in
1815,
a
tiny
North
Sea
island,
and
confirmed
its
long-term
control
of
Malta
–
these
were
strategic
rather
than
significant
“border
changes.”
Overall,
from
1789
to
1815,
Britain’s
borders
in
Europe
stayed
constant,
though
its
global
power
grew.
Britain’s
role
in
1815
was
as
a
guarantor
of
the
peace;
it
had
no
interest
in
continental
annexations,
focusing
instead
on
maintaining
a
balance
so
no
single
power
(like
Napoleonic
France)
could
threaten
the
equilibrium
again.
Austria
(Habsburg
Monarchy)
Austria
in
1789
was
the
leading
state
of
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
and
a
vast
multi-national
monarchy.
The
Austrian
Habsburgs
ruled
over
Austrian
and
Czech
lands,
Hungary,
parts
of
Poland
(Galicia
from
the
1772
partition),
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium),
and
various
Italian
possessions
(Milan/Lombardy
and
Tuscany
were
under
Habsburg
control,
and
the
Emperor
was
also
Grand
Duke
of
Tuscany
by
family
line).
By
1815,
Austria’s
holdings
had
shifted
eastward
and
southward,
reflecting
both
losses
and
gains.
During
the
Napoleonic
Wars,
Austria
had
lost
Belgium
and
parts
of
Germany,
and
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
itself
was
dissolved
in
1806.
In
1815
Austria
did
not
regain
Belgium,
but
was
compensated
with
extensive
territory
in
Italy:
it
directly
annexed
Lombardy–Venetia
(the
rich
Po
Valley
region).
Thus,
Austria’s
focus
moved
to
dominating
the
Italian
peninsula
rather
than
the
Low
Countries.
In
Germany,
the
Emperor
Francis
II
had
relinquished
the
title
of
Holy
Roman
Emperor,
but
as
Francis
I
of
the
Austrian
Empire
he
still
presided
over
German
affairs
through
the
German
Confederation.
Austria
retained
its
traditional
hereditary
lands
(Austria,
Bohemia,
etc.)
and
the
Kingdom
of
Hungary,
as
well
as
Galicia
in
Poland.
It
also
gained
the
Dalmatian
Coast
(Illyrian
Provinces)
back
from
French
control.
However,
Austria
had
to
abandon
claims
to
territories
in
southwest
Germany.
In
summary,
from
1789
to
1815
Austria
lost
its
grip
on
the
Netherlands
and
its
formal
supremacy
in
Germany,
but
gained
new
lands
in
Italy
and
emerged
as
the
central
guarantor
of
the
new
German
political
structure.
Austria
remained
a
great
power,
now
oriented
toward
influence
in
Italy
and
Central-Eastern
Europe
rather
than
Western
Europe.
Prussia
Prussia
underwent
perhaps
the
most
dramatic
growth
between
1789
and
1815.
In
1789,
the
Kingdom
of
Prussia
was
a
mid-sized
European
power
with
scattered
territories:
it
ruled
Brandenburg
(around
Berlin)
and
eastern
territories
in
former
Polish
lands
(having
taken
parts
of
Poland
in
the
1772
Partition),
as
well
as
territories
along
the
Baltic
(East
Prussia)
and
some
enclaves
in
western
Germany
(e.g.
parts
of
Cleves
and
Guelders).
It
was
strong
but
not
yet
dominant
in
Germany,
still
rivaled
by
Austria
and
hemmed
in
by
the
plethora
of
smaller
states.
By
1815,
Prussia
had
greatly
expanded
and
risen
to
the
rank
of
a
great
power,
largely
due
to
the
decisions
at
Vienna.
Prussia
gained
extensive
new
lands
in
the
west:
the
Congress
awarded
Prussia
the
Rhineland
and
Westphalia
(including
important
cities
like
Cologne,
Aachen,
and
Essen),
which
had
been
part
of
Napoleon’s
Confederation
of
the
Rhine.
These
western
acquisitions
were
economically
significant
(rich
in
industry
and
population)
and
gave
Prussia
a
permanent
stake
in
western
Germany.
Prussia
also
received
40%
of
Saxony
(the
northern
part
of
the
Kingdom
of
Saxony)
as
punishment
for
Saxony’s
alliance
with
Napoleon.
In
the
north,
Prussia
annexed
Swedish
Pomerania,
connecting
its
territories
along
the
Baltic
Sea.
In
the
east,
Prussia
regained
the
Polish
territories
it
had
lost
in
1807;
it
took
back
Posen
(Poznań)
and
the
area
around
Thorn
(Toruń)
from
the
former
Duchy
of
Warsaw,
though
it
did
not
recover
all
of
pre-1806
Prussian
Poland
(the
bulk
of
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw
went
to
Russia).
Comparing
1789
to
1815:
Prussia
in
1789
was
fragmented
and
chiefly
an
eastern
power,
whereas
Prussia
in
1815
was
larger
and
more
consolidated,
spanning
from
the
French
border
in
the
west
to
close
to
Russia
in
the
east.
This
set
the
stage
for
Prussia
to
become
the
core
of
a
future
united
Germany.
In
short,
Prussia’s
borders
expanded
in
all
directions
by
1815
–
a
huge
shift
from
its
size
in
1789
–
marking
its
rise
at
Austria’s
side
as
a
co-guarantor
of
Central
Europe
and
a
counterweight
to
France.
Russia
The
Russian
Empire
in
1789
was
already
enormous,
stretching
from
Poland
to
Siberia.
In
Europe,
Russia’s
western
boundary
in
1789
ran
roughly
along
the
Dnieper
River
and
the
eastern
border
of
the
Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth.
Catherine
the
Great
had
taken
Crimea
from
the
Ottoman
Empire
in
1783
and
a
slice
of
Polish
territory
in
1772
(the
First
Partition),
but
the
bulk
of
Poland,
as
well
as
Finland,
were
still
outside
Russian
control
in
1789.
By
1815,
Russia
had
moved
its
frontier
westward
considerably.
During
the
intervening
years,
Russia
participated
in
the
Second
and
Third
Partitions
of
Poland
(1793
and
1795),
wiping
Poland
off
the
map
by
1795.
Napoleon’s
wars
temporarily
created
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw,
but
the
Congress
of
Vienna
gave
most
of
that
Polish
duchy
to
Russia
as
the
“Congress
Kingdom
of
Poland”
(a
Russian-controlled
Polish
entity).
Thus,
Poland
as
an
independent
country
did
not
exist
in
1815,
in
contrast
to
1789
when
the
Polish
Commonwealth
still
lived
(albeit
under
threat).
Additionally,
Russia
had
annexed
Finland
from
Sweden
in
1809,
so
by
1815
the
Russian
Empire
bordered
Scandinavia
(Grand
Duchy
of
Finland
under
the
Russian
Tsar).
In
the
south,
Russia
had
taken
Bessarabia
from
the
Ottomans
in
1812,
extending
into
the
Balkans.
Therefore,
between
1789
and
1815,
Russia’s
European
borders
expanded
west
and
south:
it
went
from
being
just
one
of
several
powers
in
Poland
to
controlling
the
core
of
Poland,
and
it
reached
farther
into
the
Black
Sea
region.
Russia
in
1815
was
the
preeminent
military
power
on
the
continent
–
it
had
not
been
occupied
by
Napoleon
(instead,
it
repelled
him
in
1812)
and
came
out
of
the
war
with
greater
territory
and
prestige.
In
1789,
by
contrast,
Russia
was
powerful
but
more
on
the
periphery
of
European
affairs.
By
1815,
under
Tsar
Alexander
I,
Russia
held
a
central
role
in
European
politics
(championing
the
Holy
Alliance)
and
its
borders
reflected
this
newfound
influence
Other
States
and
Regions
Poland:
This
is
one
of
the
most
striking
differences
between
1789
and
1815.
In
1789,
the
Polish–Lithuanian
Commonwealth
was
an
independent
(if
waning)
state
covering
a
vast
area
of
Eastern
Europe
(though
it
had
lost
some
territory
in
the
first
partition
of
1772).
By
1815,
Poland
had
been
partitioned
out
of
political
existence.
After
final
partitions
in
the
1790s,
Poland
disappeared
from
the
map
in
1795.
Napoleon’s
creation
of
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw
(1807)
gave
a
hope
of
Polish
revival,
but
the
Congress
of
Vienna
did
not
fully
restore
Poland.
Instead,
most
Polish
lands
went
to
Russia
as
the
Congress
Kingdom
of
Poland,
a
semi-autonomous
kingdom
in
personal
union
with
the
Russian
Empire.
Prussia
got
the
Grand
Duchy
of
Posen
(Poznań)
in
western
Poland,
and
Austria
kept
Galicia
(which
it
had
held
since
the
first
partition).
A
small
Free
City
of
Cracow
was
established
under
joint
oversight
of
the
powers.
In
essence,
where
in
1789
Poland
was
a
sovereign
commonwealth,
in
1815
it
was
sliced
up
among
empires
–
Russia,
Prussia,
and
Austria
each
controlled
a
portion.
The
Polish
people
would
remain
without
an
independent
state
until
after
World
War
I,
making
this
a
major
change
in
the
map
of
Europe.
German
States
(Central
Europe):
Europe
in
1789
still
featured
the
Holy
Roman
Empire,
with
its
labyrinth
of
300+
states
ranging
from
powerful
kingdoms
like
Prussia
and
Bavaria
to
tiny
prince-bishoprics
and
free
cities.
The
Habsburg
Emperor
held
a
nominal
overlordship,
but
real
power
was
diffuse.
By
1815,
the
Holy
Roman
Empire
was
gone
–
Napoleon
had
abolished
it
in
1806.
In
its
place,
German-speaking
Central
Europe
was
consolidated
into
far
fewer
states.
The
Congress
of
Vienna
confirmed
a
German
Confederation
of
39
states.
Many
small
medieval
entities
were
mediatized
or
absorbed
into
larger
neighbors.
For
example,
Hanover
(in
personal
union
with
Britain’s
King)
and
Bavaria
were
enlarged
with
territory
from
ecclesiastical
states
or
former
imperial
cities.
The
Kingdom
of
Saxony
was
reduced
(with
a
large
part
given
to
Prussia
as
noted).
Westphalia
and
other
Napoleonic
creations
were
dissolved,
their
lands
mostly
going
to
Prussia
and
Hanover.
In
1789,
one
could
travel
from
Paris
to
the
Russian
border
passing
through
dozens
of
little
German
enclaves;
in
1815,
the
same
journey
would
traverse
a
handful
of
larger
states.
So,
the
borders
in
Germany
became
simpler
and
more
streamlined
post-1815.
Austria
and
Prussia
were
the
dominant
players,
but
besides
them
there
were
now
recognizable
mid-sized
kingdoms
(Bavaria,
Württemberg,
Hanover,
Saxony,
etc.)
instead
of
an
incoherent
jigsaw
of
tiny
realms.
This
was
a
direct
consequence
of
the
French
Revolutionary/Napoleonic
era
(which
had
consolidated
Germany)
and
the
decisions
at
Vienna
to
preserve
some
of
that
consolidation
for
practicality
and
balance.
Italian
Peninsula:
In
1789,
Italy
was
not
a
unified
country
but
a
collection
of
sovereign
states:
the
Kingdom
of
Sardinia
(Piedmont-Savoy)
in
the
northwest,
the
Habsburg-controlled
Duchy
of
Milan
and
Grand
Duchy
of
Tuscany,
the
Republic
of
Venice
(still
independent
until
1797),
the
Papal
States
in
central
Italy,
the
Kingdom
of
Naples
(Sicily)
in
the
south
(under
a
cadet
branch
of
Bourbons),
plus
smaller
duchies
like
Modena,
Parma,
and
the
Republic
of
Genoa,
etc.
By
1815,
the
map
of
Italy
had
been
rearranged
by
both
Napoleon
and
the
Congress.
Napoleon
had
swept
away
Venice
and
many
small
states,
and
though
the
Congress
mostly
restored
old
rulers,
it
did
not
return
to
the
exact
1789
setup.
Venice,
for
instance,
never
reappeared
as
an
independent
republic
–
it
was
given
to
Austria
(forming
Lombardy-Venetia).
The
Kingdom
of
Sardinia
was
restored
and
actually
enlarged
–
it
got
back
Piedmont
and
Savoy
and
also
was
granted
Genoa
(to
strengthen
it).
The
Papal
States
were
restored
to
the
Pope
after
having
been
annexed
by
Napoleon.
Naples
and
Sicily,
which
had
been
separate
in
1789
(Sicily
as
a
haven
for
the
Bourbon
king
during
Napoleon’s
conquest
of
Naples),
were
unified
again
under
King
Ferdinand
as
the
Kingdom
of
the
Two
Sicilies
in
1815
(Bourbon
restoration).
Milan
and
Tuscany,
which
in
1789
were
Habsburg
possessions,
came
back
under
Austrian
influence:
Milan
as
part
of
direct
Austrian
rule
(Lombardy)
and
Tuscany
under
an
Austrian
grand
duke.
Essentially,
Italy
in
1815
was
carved
up
among
a
few
major
states:
Austria
dominated
the
north
(Lombardy-Venetia),
the
House
of
Savoy
ruled
the
northwest
(Sardinia-Piedmont),
the
Pope
in
the
center,
and
the
Bourbons
in
the
south
–
whereas
in
1789
there
were
more
independent
entities
(like
Venice
and
Genoa)
and
less
overt
Austrian
territorial
presence.
In
both
1789
and
1815
Italy
was
fragmented,
but
the
identity
of
some
states
and
borders
had
changed.
Notably,
the
concept
of
Italian
unification
had
been
kindled
(there
were
nascent
nationalist
feelings
by
1815,
partly
a
reaction
to
Napoleonic
rule),
whereas
in
1789
the
idea
of
a
unified
Italy
was
politically
dormant.
Scandinavia:
The
Scandinavian
political
map
shifted
between
1789
and
1815
due
to
the
Napoleonic
Wars.
In
1789,
Denmark-Norway
was
a
united
dual
kingdom
(the
King
of
Denmark
also
ruled
Norway),
and
Sweden
was
an
independent
kingdom
that
still
controlled
Finland
and
had
no
union
with
Norway.
By
1815,
this
had
changed:
Denmark
lost
Norway
to
Sweden
as
a
result
of
the
wars
(Treaty
of
Kiel,
1814)
Thus,
in
1815
Sweden
and
Norway
were
joined
in
a
personal
union
under
the
Swedish
crown
(the
“United
Kingdoms
of
Sweden
and
Norway”)
Meanwhile,
Sweden
itself
had
undergone
change
during
the
Napoleonic
era:
it
lost
Finland
to
Russia
in
1809,
so
in
1815
Sweden’s
eastern
border
was
the
Baltic
Sea,
with
the
new
Russian
Grand
Duchy
of
Finland
on
the
other
side.
Additionally,
Sweden
in
1815
was
ruled
by
a
Frenchman
(Marshal
Bernadotte,
who
became
King
Karl
XIV
Johan)
–
a
result
of
Napoleonic
intrigue
–
which
contrasts
with
1789
when
Sweden
was
ruled
by
its
native
Gustav
III.
Denmark,
having
been
on
the
losing
side
with
Napoleon,
was
reduced
in
status
after
1815,
ruling
only
Denmark
proper,
Greenland,
etc.,
and
the
duchies
of
Schleswig-Holstein
(under
personal
union)
but
not
Norway.
In
summary,
from
1789
to
1815
Scandinavian
borders
changed
such
that
Norway
shifted
from
Danish
to
Swedish
rule,
and
Sweden
ceded
Finland
to
Russia,
greatly
shrinking
Swedish
territory.
The
creation
of
the
Sweden-Norway
union
in
1815
was
a
direct
consequence
of
the
Napoleonic
upheavals;
no
such
union
existed
in
1789.
The
Netherlands
and
Belgium:
In
1789,
the
Low
Countries
were
divided
between
the
Dutch
Republic
(also
known
as
the
United
Provinces)
in
the
north
and
the
Austrian
Netherlands
(Belgium)
in
the
south.
The
Prince
of
Orange
led
the
Dutch
Republic,
while
Belgium
was
under
Habsburg
Austrian
rule.
By
1815,
this
entire
region
was
unified
into
the
single
Kingdom
of
the
Netherlands.
Napoleon
had
conquered
both
the
Netherlands
and
Belgium
(annexing
them
into
France
during
his
rule).
After
his
defeat,
the
Congress
of
Vienna
combined
them
and
placed
Prince
William
of
Orange
as
King
of
a
new,
enlarged
Netherlands.
Thus,
Belgium
and
Holland
were
one
country
in
1815,
whereas
in
1789
they
were
separate
and
under
different
rulers.
The
intent
was
to
create
a
strong
buffer
state
north
of
France.
Culturally
and
politically
this
was
a
big
change
(Catholic
Belgian
provinces
and
Protestant
Dutch
had
notable
differences),
and
the
union
eventually
failed
in
1830
when
Belgium
revolted.
But
in
terms
of
borders:
1789
had
a
border
between
the
Dutch
Republic
and
Austrian
Netherlands;
1815
erased
that
border,
making
it
all
one
kingdom
stretching
from
the
North
Sea
to
the
French
frontier.
Also,
the
Dutch
Republic
in
1789
still
possessed
territories
that
by
1815
had
changed
(the
Dutch
lost
the
Cape
Colony
and
Ceylon
to
the
British
during
the
wars,
though
those
are
outside
Europe).
Internally,
the
government
shifted
from
the
oligarchic
republic
of
1789
to
a
monarchy
in
1815.
Switzerland:
Swiss
borders
remained
roughly
similar
from
1789
to
1815,
but
their
status
changed.
In
1789,
the
old
Swiss
Confederation
was
a
loose
union
of
13
cantons
(and
associated
territories)
with
a
neutral
stance.
Napoleon
invaded
and
turned
it
into
the
Helvetic
Republic
(a
centralized
state)
in
1798,
then
later
a
reconstructed
Confederation
in
1803
under
French
influence.
By
1815,
the
Congress
of
Vienna
re-established
Switzerland’s
autonomy
and
neutrality,
adding
additional
territories
(such
as
Geneva,
Valais,
and
Neuchâtel)
to
the
Confederation.
The
Swiss
Confederation
of
1815
had
22
cantons,
compared
to
13
cantons
in
1789
(the
new
cantons
were
formerly
subject
lands
or
independent
areas
allied
with
the
old
Confederation).
The
crucial
difference
is
that
in
1815
the
great
powers
guaranteed
Swiss
neutrality,
whereas
in
1789
Switzerland’s
neutrality
was
traditional
but
not
internationally
guaranteed.
Territorial
adjustments
were
minor
(mostly
adding
the
new
cantons),
but
politically
Switzerland
in
1815
was
more
secure
and
unified
than
the
somewhat
oligarchic
patchwork
of
1789.
Spain
and
Portugal:
The
Iberian
Peninsula’s
borders
did
not
change
significantly
between
1789
and
1815,
but
their
political
statuses
did.
In
1789,
Spain
was
a
stable
Bourbon-ruled
kingdom,
and
Portugal
was
under
the
Braganza
dynasty,
with
both
maintaining
their
long-standing
borders.
The
French
Revolution
and
Napoleon
upheaved
this
stability:
Napoleon
invaded
Spain
(1808)
and
Portugal
(1807),
briefly
placing
his
brother
Joseph
on
the
throne
of
Spain
and
causing
the
Portuguese
royal
family
to
flee
to
Brazil.
By
1815,
however,
both
countries
were
restored
to
their
previous
rulers
and
borders.
Spain
in
1815
had
Ferdinand
VII
back
on
the
throne,
ruling
the
same
Spanish
territories
(no
land
lost
or
gained
in
Europe
compared
to
1789).
Portugal’s
borders
were
also
unchanged,
with
King
João
VI
(who
had
been
in
Brazil)
returning
after
Napoleon’s
defeat.
A
minor
territorial
note:
as
mentioned,
the
town
of
Olivenza
was
taken
by
Spain
from
Portugal
in
1801;
the
Congress
of
Vienna
urged
its
return
to
Portugal,
but
Spain
did
not
comply,
so
that
small
border
adjustment
remained
disputed.
Aside
from
that,
the
map
of
Iberia
in
1815
looks
like
that
of
1789.
The
big
difference
lies
in
the
fact
that
1789
Spain
and
Portugal
were
colonial
superpowers
with
vast
New
World
empires,
whereas
by
1815
the
Spanish
Empire
was
on
the
brink
of
losing
its
American
colonies
(independence
movements
were
underway).
This,
however,
was
outside
the
European
map
proper.
On
the
European
map,
Spain
and
Portugal’s
borders
were
stable
from
1789
to
1815
–
what
changed
was
that
they
went
through
occupation
and
turmoil
in
between,
only
to
be
restored
by
1815
to
roughly
the
status
quo
ante.
Ottoman
Empire
and
Balkans:
From
1789
to
1815,
the
Ottoman
Empire’s
European
boundaries
receded
slightly
in
the
east.
In
1789,
the
Ottomans
controlled
most
of
the
Balkans
(the
map
shows
Ottoman
suzerainty
as
far
north
as
the
Danube
and
west
to
the
Adriatic
in
some
areas).
By
1815,
the
Ottoman
Empire
had
lost
some
territory
to
Russia.
Notably,
the
Ottomans
ceded
the
Crimea
and
surrounding
areas
by
1783
and
later
the
province
of
Bessarabia
(Moldavia’s
eastern
part)
to
Russia
in
1812.
The
Congress
of
Vienna
did
not
directly
involve
the
Ottomans
(they
were
not
part
of
the
Napoleonic
coalitions),
but
indirectly,
Russian
gains
at
Ottoman
expense
were
part
of
the
backdrop.
The
rest
of
the
Balkans
(Serbia,
Greece,
etc.)
were
still
under
Ottoman
rule
in
1815
(although
Serbia
had
gained
autonomous
status
by
1815
after
a
rebellion).
Thus,
on
a
broad
view,
Southeastern
Europe
saw
the
Ottomans
slightly
weaker
in
1815
than
in
1789
and
Russia
correspondingly
more
present
on
the
Black
Sea
–
but
the
core
map
of
the
Balkans
remained
Ottoman-dominated
until
later
in
the
19th
century.
In
summary,
Europe’s
borders
in
1815
differed
markedly
from
1789
primarily
due
to
the
collapse
of
old
Poland,
the
consolidation
of
Germany
and
Italy
into
fewer
states,
the
rise
of
new
power
centers
(Prussia
and
Russia
expanding),
and
the
strategic
creation
of
buffer
states
like
the
Netherlands
and
a
Swedish-Norwegian
union.
The
guiding
principle
in
1815
was
restoring
stability
and
dynastic
legitimacy,
which
meant
that
although
revolutionary
conquests
were
rolled
back
(France
lost
everything
it
gained),
Europe
was
not
simply
reset
to
1789.
Instead,
the
great
powers
crafted
a
new
equilibrium
with
fewer
political
units
and
larger,
stronger
states
to
prevent
another
continent-wide
conflagration.
The
differences
in
the
map
reflect
the
seismic
impact
of
the
French
Revolution
and
Napoleon
on
almost
every
corner
of
Europe.
European
Borders:
1812
vs.
1815
See:
Map
Of
Napoleonic
Europe
In
1812
At
The
Peak
Of
French
Power
The
contrast
between
1812
(Napoleon’s
empire
at
its
zenith)
and
1815
(post-Napoleonic
restoration)
is
dramatic.
In
1812,
Napoleon
dominated
most
of
Europe,
either
directly
or
through
dependent
allies.
The
French
Empire
had
annexed
extensive
territories
and
established
client
kingdoms,
creating
an
unprecedented
concentration
of
power
in
Europe.
By
1815,
this
had
been
entirely
undone:
Napoleon’s
empire
was
dismantled,
and
the
map
was
redivided
among
the
victorious
Allies.
Essentially,
French
hegemony
in
1812
gave
way
to
a
restored
balance
of
power
in
1815.
Below,
we
detail
how
the
Napoleonic
realm
of
1812
was
carved
up
and
which
states
were
restored
or
reshaped
by
1815:
France
and
the
Napoleonic
Empire
In
1812,
France
under
Napoleon
was
not
just
the
pre-Revolutionary
kingdom;
it
had
expanded
its
direct
territory
far
beyond.
By
that
year,
Napoleon
had
annexed
the
entire
Iberian
Peninsula
north
of
the
Ebro
(Catalonia
was
under
direct
French
rule),
the
whole
of
Belgium
and
the
Netherlands,
and
much
of
western
Germany
into
the
French
Empire.
He
also
annexed
parts
of
Italy
(Rome
and
the
Papal
States,
Tuscany,
and
the
Illyrian
Provinces
on
the
Adriatic
coast)
into
France.
Moreover,
areas
like
Switzerland
and
the
Confederation
of
the
Rhine
(comprising
most
German
states)
and
the
Grand
Duchy
of
Warsaw
(Poland)
were
essentially
vassal
or
satellite
states
under
Napoleon’s
control.
By
comparison,
in
1815
France
had
been
forced
back
to
its
old
boundaries
–
all
the
annexations
were
taken
away.
France
was
reduced
to
roughly
its
1790
borders,
confined
largely
to
what
is
the
modern
French
territory.
Napoleon’s
imperial
titles
(e.g.
King
of
Italy)
were
forfeited,
and
all
client
republics
and
kingdoms
he
had
established
were
dissolved
or
given
back
to
their
former
dynasties.
The
Bourbon
King
Louis
XVIII
was
installed
on
the
throne,
so
France
in
1815
was
a
nation-state
monarchy
again,
no
longer
an
expanding
empire.
This
reversal
was
confirmed
by
the
first
Treaty
of
Paris
(1814)
and
reinforced
after
Waterloo
by
the
second
Treaty
of
Paris
in
late
1815,
which
even
imposed
a
minor
border
contraction
and
an
indemnity
on
France
due
to
Napoleon’s
brief
return.
Great
Britain
For
Britain,
the
years
1812
to
1815
did
not
change
its
European
holdings
(as
noted
earlier,
Britain
had
no
continental
territories
except
Gibraltar).
In
1812,
Britain
stood
as
Napoleon’s
staunch
adversary,
holding
out
in
the
Peninsular
War
in
Spain
and
Portugal
and
also
fighting
the
War
of
1812
against
the
United
States
overseas.
By
1815,
Britain
emerged
triumphant
in
Europe,
having
played
a
key
role
in
Napoleon’s
defeat
(Wellington’s
victory
at
Waterloo).
Territorial
outcomes
for
Britain
in
Europe
remained
minimal:
Britain
still
just
had
Gibraltar
and
some
Mediterranean
islands
(Malta,
acquired
during
the
war,
which
it
kept).
One
change
by
1815
was
Britain’s
acquisition
of
some
small
but
strategic
territories:
for
instance,
the
Ionian
Islands
(off
Greece)
were
placed
under
British
protection
in
1815.
But
essentially,
from
1812
to
1815,
Britain’s
map
didn’t
change,
rather
its
status
did
–
from
embattled
lone
holdout
to
one
of
the
victors
shaping
Europe.
The
British
focus
after
1815
was
to
maintain
the
balance
and
its
naval
dominance;
it
did
not
seek
territory
in
defeated
France
or
its
former
client
states
(aside
from
colonial
gains).
Austria
Between
1812
and
1815,
Austria
went
from
being
an
unwilling
ally
of
Napoleon
to
a
leader
in
his
defeat,
and
its
territories
were
adjusted
accordingly.
In
1812,
Austria
had
recently
been
defeated
(in
1809)
and
forced
into
an
alliance
with
Napoleon
–
Emperor
Francis’s
daughter
had
even
married
Napoleon.
Austria
in
1812
had
temporarily
ceded
some
lands:
notably
the
Illyrian
Provinces
(the
Adriatic
coast,
including
much
of
modern
Slovenia
and
Dalmatia)
were
under
French
rule
after
1809.
Austria
had
also
lost
direct
influence
in
Germany
and
Italy
due
to
Napoleon’s
reorganization
(though
Austria
still
held
its
core
and
some
Polish
territory).
By
1815,
Austria
was
on
the
winning
side
and
got
back
what
it
lost
and
more.
The
Illyrian
Provinces
were
returned
from
France
to
Austrian
control.
Austria
also
gained
new
territories
in
Italy
(the
rich
regions
of
Lombardy
and
Venetia,
which
in
1812
had
been
part
of
Napoleon’s
Kingdom
of
Italy).
However,
Austria
did
not
re-annex
the
former
Austrian
Netherlands
or
assert
control
west
of
the
Rhine
–
those
were
gone
for
good.
Instead,
Austria’s
gains
by
1815
were
to
the
south
and
east:
northern
Italy
and
consolidation
of
its
influence
in
Central
Europe.
Another
change:
in
1812
Austria
had
no
say
in
the
Confederation
of
the
Rhine;
by
1815
that
French-backed
Confederation
was
gone,
replaced
by
the
German
Confederation
under
Austria’s
presidency.
So
Austria’s
authority
was
restored
in
Germany
(indirectly)
and
greatly
enhanced
in
Italy
by
1815,
compared
to
its
diminished
position
under
Napoleon’s
dominance
in
1812
Prussia
Prussia
in
1812
had
been
drastically
reduced
by
Napoleon.
After
defeats
in
1806-1807,
Prussia
lost
about
half
its
territory
(including
much
of
Poland,
lands
west
of
the
Elbe,
etc.)
and
was
forced
into
alliance
with
France.
In
1812,
Prussia
was
actually
Napoleon’s
reluctant
ally
and
had
to
contribute
troops
to
the
invasion
of
Russia.
The
Prussian
kingdom
then
was
mostly
confined
to
north-eastern
Germany
(Brandenburg,
Silesia,
East
Prussia)
with
some
small
Rhenish
possessions
left.
By
1815,
Prussia
had
re-entered
the
war
(in
1813)
against
Napoleon
and
as
a
victor
at
Vienna
it
received
a
bountiful
reward.
Prussia
regained
all
it
had
lost
and
expanded
significantly
beyond
its
pre-Napoleonic
size.
As
noted
earlier,
Prussia
in
1815
got
the
northern
Rhineland
and
Westphalia,
annexed
Swedish
Pomerania,
and
took
a
large
part
of
Saxony,
as
well
as
Posen
in
Poland.
This
was
a
monumental
change
from
1812,
when
none
of
these
western
territories
were
under
Prussian
control
(they
were
either
French
client
states
or
other
kingdoms).
In
1812,
the
French
client
Kingdom
of
Westphalia
(ruled
by
Napoleon’s
brother
Jérôme)
sat
in
the
area
of
Hanover/Hesse-Westphalia
–
by
1815
Westphalia
was
gone
and
Prussia
ruled
much
of
that
area.
So,
the
difference
is
that
Prussia
was
reborn
and
enlarged
out
of
Napoleon’s
downfall.
The
scattered,
diminished
Prussia
of
1812
became
a
geographically
broader
and
more
powerful
state
by
1815,
second
only
to
Russia
and
Austria
in
land
power.
In
summary,
between
1812
and
1815
Prussia
went
from
vassal
to
victor,
with
its
borders
redrawn
to
include
key
regions
that
had
belonged
to
Napoleon’s
empire
or
satellites.
This
illustrates
how
Napoleon’s
dismantling
directly
paved
the
way
for
Prussia’s
rise
–
something
completely
absent
in
1812
when
Napoleon
was
at
his
peak.
Russia
In
1812,
Russia
was
both
Napoleon’s
adversary
and
–
after
the
treaties
of
Tilsit
(1807)
–
somewhat
an
uneasy
ally
(they
had
agreed
to
split
influence
in
Europe,
but
by
1812
they
were
at
war).
Napoleon’s
invasion
of
Russia
in
1812
failed
disastrously,
which
became
the
turning
point
for
his
empire.
Regarding
borders:
Russia
in
1812
already
held
Finland
(taken
from
Sweden)
and
Bessarabia,
and
it
was
poised
defensively
against
Napoleon’s
Grand
Armée.
By
1815,
Russia’s
territorial
reach
had
actually
increased,
primarily
through
Poland.
In
1812,
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw
(Napoleon’s
client
Polish
state)
existed
as
a
buffer;
by
1815,
most
of
that
duchy
was
absorbed
into
the
Russian
Empire
as
the
Congress
Kingdom
of
Poland.
This
meant
that
where
Napoleon
in
1812
had
a
friendly
Polish
state
on
Russia’s
border,
in
1815
Russia
itself
moved
its
border
to
the
west,
into
the
heart
of
Poland.
Also,
with
Napoleon
gone,
Russia’s
influence
spread
across
Europe
–
Russian
armies
had
marched
to
Paris
in
1814,
and
Tsar
Alexander
I
was
a
leading
voice
at
the
Congress.
So,
while
Russia’s
formal
borders
changed
only
modestly
(primarily
the
acquisition
of
most
of
Poland),
its
geopolitical
power
in
1815
was
at
a
high.
Another
note:
in
1812,
Russia
was
at
war
with
France
and
had
ceded
no
territory
in
Europe
to
Napoleon
(only
temporarily
evacuated
some
places);
by
1815,
Russia
had
not
lost
any
European
land
at
all
–
rather
it
gained.
So
from
1812
to
1815,
Russia
went
from
threatened
to
tremendously
aggrandized,
without
the
setbacks
other
powers
had
experienced
earlier.
This
solidified
Russia’s
role
as
the
leading
continental
land
power
post-1815.
Restored
or
Reshaped
States
(Napoleon’s
Empire
Dismantled)
Napoleon
had
installed
his
own
family
members
on
various
European
thrones
and
created
new
states
dependent
on
him.
All
of
these
underwent
major
change
by
1815:
Spain:
In
1812,
Spain
was
partly
under
French
control
–
Napoleon’s
brother
Joseph
Bonaparte
sat
on
the
Spanish
throne
in
Madrid,
although
a
fierce
guerrilla
war
(the
Peninsular
War)
raged
and
the
legitimate
Bourbon
king
(Ferdinand
VII)
was
in
exile.
By
1815,
Napoleon’s
influence
was
gone
from
the
Iberian
Peninsula.
Ferdinand
VII
was
restored
as
King
of
Spain,
reclaiming
the
throne
and
re-establishing
Spain
as
an
independent
kingdom.
The
French
troops
had
been
expelled
(with
British
and
Portuguese
help)
by
1814.
Thus,
a
Bonaparte
kingdom
in
1812
became
a
Bourbon-ruled
nation
again
by
1815.
Spain’s
borders
in
Europe
were
unchanged,
but
its
government
and
alignment
flipped
back
to
the
pre-Napoleonic
dynasty.
(However,
Spain
was
weakened
and
soon
faced
uprisings
in
its
American
colonies,
a
legacy
of
the
instability
during
Joseph’s
rule.)
Kingdom
of
the
Two
Sicilies
(Naples):
In
1812,
southern
Italy
(the
Kingdom
of
Naples)
was
under
Joachim
Murat,
Napoleon’s
brother-in-law,
who
Napoleon
had
made
King
of
Naples
after
deposing
the
Bourbon
royal
family.
Murat
initially
stayed
in
power
even
after
Napoleon’s
first
defeat,
but
during
the
Hundred
Days
(1815)
he
rashly
supported
Napoleon
again,
leading
to
his
downfall.
By
the
end
of
1815,
King
Ferdinand
I
(Bourbon)
was
restored
to
Naples,
uniting
it
with
Sicily
again
as
the
Kingdom
of
the
Two
Sicilies.
So,
Murat’s
Napoleonic
regime
(1812)
was
replaced
by
the
old
Bourbon
monarchy
(1815).
Naples’
borders
remained
the
same,
but
its
ruler
changed
–
a
clear
example
of
Vienna’s
policy
of
legitimacy.
Italy
(Northern
States):
In
1812,
Northern
and
Central
Italy
had
been
dominated
by
Napoleon.
He
was
the
King
of
Italy
(a
title
for
the
territory
roughly
covering
Lombardy,
Venetia,
and
parts
of
central
Italy
that
comprised
the
“Kingdom
of
Italy”
under
his
direct
rule).
He
had
also
annexed
the
Papal
States
and
placed
his
relatives
on
other
thrones
(e.g.
his
sister
Elisa
ruled
Tuscany
for
a
time).
By
1815,
all
these
Napoleonic
arrangements
were
undone.
The
Kingdom
of
Italy
was
dissolved;
Lombardy
and
Venetia
went
to
Austria,
as
noted.
The
Pope
returned
to
Rome
to
govern
the
Papal
States.
Various
duchies
(Parma,
Modena,
Tuscany)
were
given
back
to
their
former
dynastic
rulers
(for
instance,
Napoleon’s
second
wife
Marie
Louise
was
given
Parma,
but
as
a
Habsburg
archduchess
rather
than
a
Napoleonic
imposition).
Genoa,
which
had
been
annexed
to
France,
was
given
to
Piedmont-Sardinia.
In
short,
between
1812
and
1815
the
entire
political
structure
of
Italy
was
reversed
to
traditional
rulers
–
from
Napoleonic
family
members
and
republics
back
to
kings,
dukes,
and
popes
of
the
old
order.
The
map
of
Italy
in
1815
might
superficially
resemble
that
of
1790
more
than
1810,
but
with
the
notable
difference
that
Austria
now
directly
controlled
the
northeast
(something
Napoleon
had
prevented
by
holding
it
himself)
and
that
no
independent
Venice
or
Genoa
existed.
So
Napoleon’s
Italian
empire
was
dismantled,
and
the
Italian
peninsula
was
fragmented
once
again
under
Austrian
oversight
and
Bourbon/Savoyard
rule.
Confederation
of
the
Rhine
(German
States)
and
Kingdom
of
Westphalia:
In
1812,
almost
all
the
German
states
(except
Prussia
and
Austria)
were
organized
into
the
Confederation
of
the
Rhine,
essentially
a
French
protectorate.
Napoleon
was
its
“Protector,”
and
it
provided
troops
for
his
armies.
He
had
also
created
the
Kingdom
of
Westphalia
in
northern
Germany
for
his
brother
Jérôme,
and
enlarged
Bavaria,
Württemberg,
Saxony,
etc.,
as
client
allies.
After
Napoleon’s
defeat,
the
Confederation
of
the
Rhine
collapsed
as
German
princes
defected
to
the
Allies
in
1813.
By
1815,
it
was
replaced
by
the
German
Confederation
of
39
states
under
Austrian
leadership.
The
Kingdom
of
Westphalia
was
abolished
–
its
territory
was
divided
mainly
between
Prussia
(which
took
Westphalia
and
surrounding
areas)
and
the
Kingdom
of
Hanover
(which
was
restored
and
enlarged).
Hanover,
which
in
1812
had
been
part
of
Westphalia,
was
re-established
in
1815
as
a
kingdom
in
personal
union
with
Britain,
regaining
sovereignty.
Saxony,
which
in
1812
was
a
client
ally
of
Napoleon
(and
its
king
ruled
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw),
in
1815
was
punished
by
losing
a
chunk
of
territory
to
Prussia.
So,
the
German
world
went
from
being
a
French-dominated
federation
(1812)
to
a
largely
independent
patchwork
under
Austrian/Prussian
influence
(1815).
Many
smaller
rulers
got
their
thrones
back
(the
Elector
of
Hesse,
the
Duke
of
Brunswick,
etc.,
who
had
been
deposed
by
Napoleon)
–
a
clear
restoration.
The
difference
is
illustrated
by
the
military
situation:
in
1812,
German
troops
marched
with
Napoleon
to
Russia;
in
1815,
German
troops
(Prussian,
Austrian,
etc.)
marched
against
Napoleon
at
Waterloo.
Politically,
Napoleon’s
kin
no
longer
ruled
any
German
state
by
1815.
Poland
(Duchy
of
Warsaw):
As
mentioned,
Napoleon
had
recreated
a
Polish
state
in
1807
–
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw
–
under
his
ally,
the
King
of
Saxony.
In
1812,
this
Duchy
was
allied
with
Napoleon
and
served
as
a
French
satellite
(Polish
forces
fought
with
Napoleon
in
Russia).
In
1815,
the
duchy
was
gone.
The
bulk
of
it
became
the
Congress
Kingdom
of
Poland
under
Tsar
Alexander
(who
took
the
title
King
of
Poland).
Prussia
and
Austria
took
smaller
portions
(Posen
to
Prussia,
Galicia
already
with
Austria,
Krakow
as
a
small
free
city).
Thus,
the
Polish
political
entity
that
existed
in
1812
thanks
to
Napoleon
was
partitioned
once
again
in
1815,
effectively
returning
Poland
to
the
control
of
the
partitioning
powers
(albeit
now
with
a
nominal
“kingdom”
under
Russia).
In
short,
Napoleon’s
Polish
client
state
was
dismantled
and
divided
among
the
victors,
reversing
the
temporary
revival
of
Polish
autonomy
that
the
Duchy
of
Warsaw
represented.
Netherlands
and
Belgium:
Napoleon
had
annexed
the
entire
region
of
the
Netherlands
and
Belgium
directly
into
France
by
1812
(the
Kingdom
of
Holland,
which
he
created
for
his
brother
Louis,
had
been
absorbed
into
France
in
1810).
In
1812,
there
was
no
independent
Dutch
state
–
it
was
French
territory.
By
1815,
as
discussed,
the
United
Kingdom
of
the
Netherlands
was
established,
fully
sovereign
under
the
House
of
Orange.
This
meant
that
a
French
imperial
province
(1812)
became
an
independent
kingdom
(1815).
The
Austrian
Netherlands,
which
in
1812
was
also
French
territory
(the
Département
de
la
Dyle,
etc.),
similarly
became
part
of
that
new
Dutch
Kingdom.
This
is
a
stark
change:
effectively
Napoleon’s
rule
was
ejected
from
the
Low
Countries,
and
a
new
state
was
created
where
none
existed
in
1812.
The
new
kingdom
was
larger
than
the
old
Dutch
Republic
and
designed
specifically
to
be
a
bulwark
against
France.
Scandinavia:
While
not
under
Napoleon’s
rule,
Scandinavia
was
affected
by
his
defeat.
In
1812,
Denmark
was
still
in
possession
of
Norway
(and
was
allied
to
Napoleon),
and
Sweden,
under
Bernadotte
(who
by
1812
had
switched
to
the
Allied
side),
was
aiming
to
get
Norway
as
compensation
for
the
loss
of
Finland
to
Russia.
By
1815,
as
arranged
first
in
1814,
Norway
was
in
union
with
Sweden.
The
Danish
king
had
ceded
Norway,
ending
a
centuries-old
union.
So
the
map
change
from
1812:
Norway’s
allegiance
flipped
–
in
1812
Norway
effectively
was
linked
to
a
French
ally
(Denmark);
in
1815
Norway
was
joined
with
Sweden,
one
of
the
Coalition
victors.
This
realignment
deprived
France
of
any
Scandinavian
ally
and
rewarded
Sweden
for
fighting
Napoleon.
Meanwhile,
Sweden’s
border
with
Russia
(losing
Finland)
was
already
settled
in
1809,
but
by
1815
Sweden
had
no
threat
from
France
and
had
gained
Norway.
Denmark,
significantly
smaller,
was
now
isolated.
Thus,
Napoleonic
influence
in
northern
Europe
(which
had
been
secured
via
Denmark
and
a
friendly
stance
of
Sweden
until
1810)
was
gone
by
1815,
replaced
by
a
new
order
in
which
Britain,
Russia,
and
Prussia
had
more
influence
in
the
north,
and
Sweden-Norway
stood
as
a
unified
block.
Switzerland:
In
1812,
Switzerland
(the
Helvetic
Confederation)
was
effectively
a
client
state
of
France
–
while
nominally
independent
after
1803,
it
was
under
French
influence
and
its
neutrality
had
been
violated
by
both
French
and
Allied
armies.
By
1815,
Switzerland
was
explicitly
neutral
and
independent,
guaranteed
by
the
powers.
Napoleon’s
garrisons
were
withdrawn.
The
change
isn’t
so
much
a
border
change
(though
three
new
cantons
were
added
in
1815
as
mentioned)
as
a
status
change:
from
satellite
in
1812
to
internationally
recognized
neutral
nation
in
1815.
Other
Napoleonic
client
changes:
Napoleon
had
created
or
influenced
other
entities
–
the
Confederation
of
Switzerland
(Helvetic
Republic),
the
Illyrian
Provinces
(direct
French
rule
over
Slovenia/Croatia
coast),
the
Grand
Duchy
of
Berg,
etc.
By
1815,
all
of
these
were
gone
or
given
to
new
owners.
The
Illyrian
Provinces
in
1812
were
French;
in
1815
they
were
Austrian.
The
Grand
Duchy
of
Berg
(a
Napoleonic
creation
in
Westphalia)
in
1812
was
ruled
by
Napoleon’s
brother-in-law;
in
1815
it
was
absorbed
into
Prussian
and
other
German
territories.
In
essence,
every
border
drawn
or
redrawn
by
Napoleon
was
reversed:
Europe’s
map
in
1815
was
nearly
a
clean
slate
from
his
empire.
To
summarize
the
1812
vs.
1815
comparison:
Napoleon’s
empire
was
carved
up
and
distributed
among
the
victorious
powers
and
restored
monarchs.
France’s
overreach
was
checked
by
reducing
France
to
its
old
size.
The
vacuum
left
by
Napoleon’s
collapsed
empire
was
filled
by
strengthened
or
new
states
designed
to
keep
a
lasting
peace.
The
Congress
of
Vienna
explicitly
sought
to
“dissolve
the
Napoleonic
world”
and
restore
the
balance,
which
meant
undoing
Napoleon’s
territorial
arrangements.
By
1815,
“legitimate
kings”
were
back
on
their
thrones
(Bourbons
in
France
and
Spain,
Pope
in
Rome,
Habsburgs
in
Austria
and
Tuscany,
etc.)
and
new
unions
were
formed
(Sweden-Norway,
Netherlands)
to
fortify
Europe
against
any
future
revolutionary
regime.
The
“height
of
Napoleon’s
power”
in
1812
saw
almost
a
unipolar
Europe
under
French
dominance;
1815
restored
a
multipolar
Europe
with
a
concert
of
great
powers
and
a
patchwork
of
independent
nations.
The
borders
drawn
in
1815
endured,
with
some
adjustments,
for
many
decades,
whereas
Napoleon’s
1812
map
was
fleeting.
The
transformation
from
1812
to
1815
is
essentially
the
story
of
Europe’s
liberation
and
restoration
–
the
continent
was
reconfigured
from
a
French
imperial
system
back
to
a
system
of
sovereign
states
forming
a
balance
of
power
Other
Maps
In
this
series:
Sources:
Go to Source
Author: Brilliant Maps
